Leadership Skills Development – Leadership Theories
An effective leadership skills development is an effort that will improve and enhance a learner’s ability to lead and guide people. Leading is about setting direction and guiding others to follow that path. As an organization does begin to grow, leadership development training can be a very beneficial and advantageous program to invest in. This type of training program can guarantee that leaders have the experience and knowledge necessary to stand out.
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A team of effective employees is the company’s most valuable asset. Everyone in an organization can make a difference and this is the reason why everyone is important. And while an employee is perceived to be an asset, it is very vital to share with them certain leadership development programs and other skills.
A lot of successful companies hire experts for the purpose of executing group discussions, personality development classes and other vital teamwork exercises for their staffs and employees. Businesses that are just starting up focus on their personnel asset development to help their employees of today become great leaders of the future. There are strategic games and exercises which are intended to lend a hand in employee participation either individually or as a team; this exercises are done in order to figure out where an employee’s potential lies and can be maximized towards the goal of the organization.
Today, effective leadership skills development is believed to be the one of the major elements in every organization where its employees look forward to a future in their prospects. The best thing about this is that employees are given the chance to function beyond their normal abilities in a field where they are most suitable while contributing towards the company’s goals and objectives.
Leadership development training programs provide the learner with necessary skills in leading people in a less stressful manner. This program is needed in order to successfully take charge of your team in today’s business world.
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These is What Leadership Theories Focus on
Many leadership theories have been suggested since time immemorial. Early leadership theories focused on the behaviour and qualities of successful leaders where as later theories gave more importance to the role of associates and followers. Some of the leadership theories are as follows:
Great Man Theory; According to Great Man theory, a leader is born and cannot be made. This theory believed that leaders are people who have inborn exceptional qualities and are destined to lead. Here the term “Man” is used since leadership was considered as a concept that would be primarily dominated by males. Great leaders would arise only when there is an urgent need of it. It also suggests that leadership qualities are inherent.
Trait Theory; According to Trait theory, few people are born with qualities that are suited to leaderships. People who transform into good leaders posses right combination of leadership qualities. Through this approach, people with such leadership qualities could be separated and then people with such qualities could be recruited or selected into leadership positions. This approach was commonly used in military and is even today used to recruit candidates for commission.
Contingency Theory; this theory focuses on variables that are related to environment and that would determine which style of leadership is suitable for a particular situation. It says that it is impossible to determine which leadership style will suit best for any situation. Success depends on qualities of followers and other variables.
Situational Theories; this theory suggests that on the basis of situational variable, leaders should choose the course of action. Diverse styles of leadership will me more suitable to make certain types of decisions
Behavioral Theories; this theory believes that great leaders are not born but are made. The prime focus of this theory is on actions of leaders. The focus is not on internal states or mental qualities. This theory believes that people can become leaders through the process of teaching, learning and observation.
Participative Theory; this theory defines ideal leadership style. An ideal leadership style takes into consideration the input of its associates. Such leaders encourage contribution and participation from group members. The leader also has the right to say no to any suggestion of other team member.
Management Theories; this theory gives more importance to the role of organization, supervision and most importantly the group performance. This theory is based on the system of punishment and reward. Managerial theory is often used in many companies. When employee’s performance is very good, he or she is given a reward. If the employee’s performance decreases below a certain level, he or she is punished.
Relationship Theory; This theory also called Transformational theory focuses on the connections that are formed between followers and leaders. These leaders inspire and motivate people. They also help group members in case of any difficulty. Such leaders focus on performance of of members of group. These leaders have high moral values.
Path Goal Theory; this theory focuses on what leaders should do to motivate and inspire people so that the employees can perform well.
Leadership Development, Developing Building Learning Leadership Skills
Leadership is vital for any organization’s sustained success. A great leader at top makes a big difference to his or her organization. Everyone will concur with these statements. Experts in human resources field mention the importance of leaders at all levels, and not just that of the leadership at the top. It is not without reason that companies like 3M, Proctor & Gamble, GE, Coca Cola; HSBC etc. have known to put in place processes for developing leaders continuously.
Mention this subject, however, to a line manager, or to a sales manager, or any executive in most organizations and you will probably deal with diffident responses.
Leadership development -a strategic need?
The subject of leadership is dealt with in a general way by many organizations. Leadership is usually understood in terms of personal attributes such as charisma, communication, inspiration, dynamism, toughness, instinct, etc., and not in terms what good leaders can do for their organizations. Developing leaders falls in HR domain. Budgets are framed and outlays are used with indicators like training hours per employee per year. Whether the good intentions behind the training budgets get translated into actions or not, is not monitored.
Such leadership development outlays that are based on only good intentions and general ideas about leadership get axed in bad times and get extravagant during good times. If having great or good leaders at all levels is a strategic need, as the above top companies demonstrate and as many leading management experts assert, why do we see such a stop and go approach?
Why is there skepticism about leadership development programs?
The first reason is that expectations from good (or great) leaders are not defined in operative terms and in ways in which the outcomes can be verified. Leaders are expected to achieve’ many things. They are expected to turn laggards into high performers, turn around companies, charm customers, and dazzle media. They are expected to perform miracles. These expectations remain just wishful thinking. These desired outcomes can not be used to provide any clues about gaps in leadership skills and development needs.
Absence of a comprehensive and generic (valid in diverse industries and conditions) framework for defining leadership means that leadership development effort are scattered and inconsistent in nature. Inconsistency gives bad name to leadership development programs. This breeds cynicism (these fads come and go….) and resistance to every new initiative. This is the second reason why the objectives of leadership development are often not met.
The third reason is in the methods used for leadership development. Leadership development programs rely upon a combination of lectures (e.g. on subjects like team building, communications), case studies, and group exercises (problem solving), and some inspirational talks by top business leaders or management gurus.
Sometimes the programs consist of outdoor or adventure activities for helping people bond better with each other and build better teams. These programs generate ‘feel good’ effect and in some cases participants ‘return’ with their personal action plans. But in majority of cases they fail to capitalize on the efforts that have gone in. I must mention leadership coaching in the passing. In the hands of an expert coach a willing executive can improve his leadership skills dramatically. But leadership coaching is too expensive and inaccessible for most executives and their organizations.
Leadership -a competitive advantage
During my work as a business leader and later as a leadership coach, I found that it is useful to define leadership in operative terms. When leadership is defined in terms of what it does and in terms of capabilities of a person, it is easier to assess and develop it.
When leadership skills defined in the above manner are present at all levels, they impart a distinct capability to an organization. This capability gives a competitive advantage to the organization. Organizations with a pipeline of good leaders have competitive advantages over other organizations, even those with great leaders only at the top. The competitive advantages are:
1. They (the organizations) are able to solve problems quickly and can recover from mistakes fast.
2. They have excellent horizontal communications. Things (processes) move faster.
3. They tend to be less busy with themselves. Therefore they have ‘time’ for outside people. (Over 70% of internal communications are about reminders, error corrections etc . They are wasteful)
4. Their staff (indirect) productivity is high. This is one of the toughest management challenges.
5. They are good at heeding to signals related to quality, customer complaints, shifts in market conditions and customer preferences. This leads to good and useful bottom-up communication. Top leaders tend to have less number of blind spots in such organizations.
6. It is easier to roll out programs for strategic shift and also for improving business processes (using Six Sigma, TQM, etc.). Good bottom-up communications improve top-down communications too.
7. They require less ‘supervision’, since they are strongly rooted in values.
8. They are better at preventing catastrophic failures.
Expectations from good and effective leaders should be set out clearly. The leadership development programs should be selected to develop leadership skills that can be verified in operative terms. Since leadership development is a strategic need, there is a need for clarity about the above aspects.
Hemant Karandikar advises companies on business & brand strategy, on business transformation, and for achieving breakthroughs in business processes. He leverages this expertise in product creation projects for companies along with his design associates. He coaches business leaders and executives for developing leadership skills. Hemant founded Exponient Consulting and Learning Leadership.
Previously, Hemant was Managing Director, GWT Global Weighing (now Sartorius Mechatronics) and held position of General Manager at Philips India. He is an alumnus of Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India.
For Onsite and online coaching for leadership development, please visit http://www.learning-leadership.com/
Educational Leadership Degrees Build Strong Foundations
In the field of education, there is a strong need for leaders and administrators who will be able to instill confidence in the teachers who work for them, the students who learn from them, and the parents who trust their children to them. The educational system is in flux right now and school environments are changing. Parents are holding teachers more accountable than ever for the success of their children, and governments are using standardized testing to measure the effectiveness of teachers. Good educational leaders are not those who simply hand out directions and expect that they will be followed; rather, they are those who pave the way for success through knowing the current lay of the land and leading by example. Building these critical leadership skills necessary for the modern school administrator begins with a solid educational foundation.
Many Areas of Specialization
There are a variety of degrees in Educational Leadership available, both available online, in a traditional setting and in a setting that combines both. The choice is really up to the person pursuing the degree. Educational leadership degrees can range from master’s-level degrees up to the doctoral level. These degrees help interested professionals pursue positions such as assistant principal, principal, or superintendant; and help administrators enter leadership positions at the local, state and national level. The requirements for these specific positions vary from state to state, and acceptance into these programs usually requires a bachelor’s degree.
Many states require teachers to receive a master’s degree within a few years of starting their teaching career. Even teachers who have no designs to become administrators or policymakers can benefit from continuing their education by staying on top of the most current trends.
Leadership Skills
In educational leadership programs, participants learn a variety of skills including historical applications, qualitative applications, theories about leadership, skills in analysis of a variety of situations, communication skills both as a skilled writer and an orator, skills in problem-solving and critical analysis of situations that appear instantly, how to develop team-building qualities in a staff and, in the age in which we live, technology skills that will be critical to both job performance and curriculum development. Courses will be specific to the state in which the degree is being sought but these skills will enhance the knowledge base of each participant and help them develop the critical thinking skills needed for the administrative roles they seek.
The current state of our educational system is in flux. Now, more than ever, school districts and states are seeking qualified leaders to help their schools and their students succeed.
The Educational Leadership program DOES NOT lead to teacher or administrator certification, licensure, or endorsement in any state in the United States. These programs are designed to enhance the skills and knowledge of students who are already certified, licensed or endorsed and for students who are interested in pursuing these degrees for reasons other than obtaining teacher or administrator certification, licensure, or endorsement. Additionally, the credits earned through participating in these programs offered by Argosy University are unlikely to be transferable to any other similar program that is approved for teacher or administrator certification, licensure or endorsement in any State.
8 Steps to Effective Christian Leadership
Because both the Christian and non-Christian social environment has tended to expect that Christians measure up to their self-proclaimed moral and ethical standards, as they rightly should. What can you do to be sure you ‘stand up to the test’ in the area of Christian leadership?
1) Probably the most important thing you can do as a Christian leader is to clean up your act—if there is anything in your life, moral or ethical, which would not stand up to scrutiny if the entire world found out—you must eliminate it immediately. Do not give anyone an occasion to think that you are a hypocrite.
2) Be sure that every decision you make is honest and ethical. You cannot effectively lead, as a Christian or not, when your decisions and actions are not above-board, fair, and honest.
3) As a Christian leader, commit to telling the truth no matter what. As a Christian leader, when you lie or tell half-truths, people tend to feel that your entire faith is a sham. In fact, if you are habitually lying and telling half-truths, your faith may indeed be a sham.
4) Learn everything you can about the tasks at hand, even if it means working in the trenches for awhile. No one likes to be led by someone who has never done what they are doing. This doesn’t mean you have to become an expert, just participate in the menial work long enough to understand the frustrating aspects of the work. Another benefit to this is, when you have actually done the work, you can more effectively brainstorm solutions to challenges when they arise.
5) Lead by example. Do you expect your employees or secretaries to arrive on time for work, and dressed well? Then you must do the same. Sometimes it is so easy to think that you have earned the right to come in whenever you feel like it, or to return from lunch whenever you wish. Sure, you may have earned the right, but you gain far more by setting the example for performance. Do you expect others to work overtime when a project is behind projections? Then you must be willing to do the same.
6) Although you may feel you have earned the right to delegate away all the work, continue to be involved in productive tasks. By doing some of the work, not only do you gain the respect of your employees, but also you keep in touch with the flow of things. As a leader, it is easy to become disengaged from the actual productive segment of your business, and resultantly make decisions that look good on paper and sound good around the boardroom table, but are actually worthless when the rubber hits the road.
7) Constantly reevaluate your own performance. Often, you may spend so much time correcting the actions of others and solving crises you didn’t create, that you develop a sense that others aren’t as capable as you. Consequently, you may not recognize when you are falling into bad habits that also need to be corrected. Be the first to recognize and correct your own short-fallings.
Avoid pride. Once in a position of leadership, especially if you are good at what you do, it is easy to begin to feel that you are invincible. Once that occurs, you become vulnerable to pride, and may make decisions you would frown on if your subordinates made the same decisions. Maintain full responsibility for your actions, and keep them above-board at all times.
Bonus Step:
9) Learn to manage your time. When you are in a position of leadership and find yourself delegating away most of the time-consuming tasks, it is easy to lose control of your time. Again, when your employees see you wasting your time, they will tend to do the same.
WOMEN ENPOWERMENT – TYPES AND WAYS
WOMEN ENPOWERMENT – TYPES AND WAYS
N.V.S. SURYANARAYANA, Dr. T.J.M.S. RAJU, G.HIMABINDU, CH. ALEKHYA
Women constitute more than 50% of the population, undertake most of the work (two thirds) but only receive one tenth of the total income rather than men. The working hours of women are longer than that of men, often 12-16 hours per day. In addition to their domestic responsibilities in child care, women have to be responsible for housework, such as fetching firewood, water and cooking and even hard work as ploughing and raking, planting, transplanting and harvesting. Women have to suffer from continuing under nutrition and two thirds of them are anemic. Rural women lack sex education and have poor health due to frequent pregnancies. The illiterate women especially lack of information on balanced diet, family planning, house cleaning and other information to improve their health and the quality of life. They have lower status and low paid occupations, lower economic positions so they are less conscious and lack self-confidence. They have a few books and a little time to read so they can not appreciate the benefits of reading and have no motivation for reading.
The term “empowerment” has become one of the most widely used development terms. Women’s groups, non-governmental development organizations, activists, politicians, governments and international agencies refer to empowerment as one of their goals. Yet it is one of the least understood in terms of how it is to be measured or observed. It is used precisely because this word has now been one of the fashionable concepts to include in policies/programmes/projects that there is a need to clarify and come up with tentative definitions.
The Concept of Empowerment:
Empowerment has become a widely used word. In spheres as different as management and labor unions, health care and ecology, banking and education, empowerment also taking such place. It is also a concept that does not merely concern personal identity but brings out a broader analysis of human rights and social justice.
The term empowerment has been emerged as a ‘development buzzword’. After attempting a review of literature, Shetty (1992) comes to the conclusion that empowerment is easy to ‘intuit’ but complex to define. An empowered individual would be one who experiences a sense of self-confidence and self-worth; a person who critically analyzes his/her social and political environment; a person who is able to exercise control over decisions that affect his/her life”. An attempt is made in this paper to examine how a literacy campaign has brought about women’s empowerment. The nature of empowerment renders it difficult to define. On the one hand, it is often referred to as a goal for many development programmes/projects. On the other hand, it can also be conceived as a process that people undergo, which eventually leads to changes. Nelly Stromquist, for instance, defines empowerment as “a process to change the distribution of power both in interpersonal relations and in institutions through out society” while Lucy Lazo describes it as “a process of acquiring, providing, bestowing the resources and the means or enabling the access to a control over such means and resources”.
According to Namtip Aksornkool “It is a process in which women gain control over their own lives by knowing and claiming their rights at all levels of society at the international, local, and household levels. Self-empowerment means that women gain autonomy, are able to set their own agenda and are fully involved in the economic, political and social decision-making process.”
According to Ms.Lazo empowerment is a moving state; it is continuum that varies in degree of power. It is relative. One can move from an extreme state of absolute lack of power to the other extreme of having absolute power.” Empowerment can have six components: Cognitive, Psychological, Economic, Political, Social and Legal.
According to Ms.Stromquist, the Cognitive Component would include the ‘women are understanding of their conditions of subordination and the causes of such conditions at both micro and macro levels of society. It involves acquiring new knowledge to create a different understanding of gender relations as well as destroying old beliefs that structure powerful gender ideologies”.
The Psychological Component, on the other hand, would include the “development of feelings that women can act upon to improve their condition. This means formation of the belief that they can succeed in change efforts.”
According to him the Economic Component “requires that women can be able to engage in a productive activity that will allow them some degree of autonomy, no matter how small and hard to obtain at the beginning”. Education is considered one of the most important means to empower women with the knowledge, skills and self-confidence necessary to participate fully in development processes.
The Political Component would encompass the “ability to organize and mobilize for change. Consequently, an empowerment process must involve not only individual awareness but collective awareness and collective action. The notion of collective action is fundamental to the aim of attaining social transformation” (Stromquist). In past women role in politics is mere but know the scenario is different a good percentage i.e nearly above 33% are participating. Encouraging them to participate in community programmes, Integration of women in the general national development plan, Allotting them good portfolio’s like education, health, sanitary that motivates them to do good practices, All family members, society, environment etc., should be support full, If all the trees were one tree, what a great tree it would be; It is clear that women can be empowered individually, the feminist vision is one where women are able to articulate a collective voice and demonstrate collective strength. It was also stressed that incorporating the feminist perspective in the concept of empowerment implies a long-term re-designing of societies that will be based on democratic relationships. According to Ms.Dighe talks about empowerment as dealing with strategic rather than practical gender needs.
Social Empowerment It is a “ process to change the distribution of power in interpersonal relations among different people, cultures, activities of the society”. In past awareness regarding the society is unknown to the women but present scenario reveals completely different pictures and knows they are equally participating in all activities of the society. Best references are our present President is Mrs. Pratibha Patil. U.S. foreign secretary a women, Hillary Clinton. All efforts must be mobilized to enabling at least the next generation to be genuinely literate to empower socially. Encouraging traditional women organizations.
Talking about Legal Empowerment; Protection is needed for the women in terms of health, harassments, superstitions, cultural barriers etc., Child marriages, satisahgamana are some of the oldest traditions, which are the basic barriers for the girls development. But now there are no such rubbish traditions to be in practice. Best reference is latest women gruhahimsa crime results in lessening the harassments on women. Make them aware of the civil rights, Exercising the legal rights when ever necessary, Preparing and canvassing the documents regarding the legal freedom for women, Providing good literary programmes regarding the legal empowerment.
Indicators of Empowerment:
Understanding that empowerment is a complex issue with varying interpretations in different societal, national and cultural contexts, there is some listing of indicators.
At the level of woman and her Household :
Participation in crucial decision-making processes; Extent of sharing of domestic work by men; feeling and expression of pride and value in her work; Self-confidence and self-esteem; and Ability to prevent violence.
At the Community / Organizational level; the indicators are –
Existence of women’s organizations; Allocation of funds to women and women’s projects; Increased number of women leaders at village, district, state and national levels; Involvement of women in the design, development and application of technology; Participation in community programmes, productive enterprises, politics and arts; Involvement of women in non-traditional tasks; Increased training programmes for women; and Exercising her legal rights when necessary;
At the National level; the indicators are –
Awareness of her social and political rights; Integration of women in the general national development plan; Existence of women’s networks and publications; and The degree to which the media take on women’s issues.
Facilitating and Constraining Factors of Empowerment :
Empowerment does not take place in a vacuum. In the same way that Ms.Lazo talks about women’s state of powerlessness as a result of “a combination and interaction of environmental factors.
Facilitating factors for Women Empowerment :
v Existence of women’s organizations;
v Availability of support systems for women;
v Availability of women-specific data and other relevant information;
v Availability of funds
v Feminist leadership;
v Networking;
v Favorable media coverage;
v Favorable policy climate.
Constraining Factors for Women Empowerment :
Heavy work load of women;
Isolation of women from each other;.
Illiteracy;
Traditional views that limit women’s participation;
No funds;
Internal strife/militarization/wars;
Disagreements/conflicts among women’s groups;
Structural adjustment policies;
Discriminatory policy environment;
Negative and sensational coverage of media.
Strategies for the Future :
Empowerment through education is ideally seen as a continuous holistic process with Cognitive, Psychological, Economic, Social, Legal and Political dimensions in order to achieve emancipation. Given the complexity of political, societal and international interrelations, one has to systematically think about the strategies and concrete proposals for future action. Women Empowerment is possible with the below factors –
a) Education :
The formal and non-formal education systems would need to be considered. It would be important to analyze the gender content and to ascertain the manner in which it is addressed/not addressed in the educational system. On the basis of the analysis, curriculum changes would need to be brought about. Likewise it would be important to reorient the teachers on gender issues so that overall gender sensitization in the educational system could be brought about. In concrete terms, this would mean ;
Reorienting and re-educating policy makers;
Securing equal access for boys and girls in education; Holding workshops/seminars for teachers Revising teaching materials; Producing materials in local languages; Implementing special programmes for women in the field of Adult Education; Incorporating issues such as tradition, race, ethnicity, gender sensitization, urban and Rural contexts in the programmes; Raising awareness on the necessity for health care; To show them how macro level mismanagement is responsible for their loss of jobs Focusing on parents as role models
It was also necessary to clarify the goals of women’s education. The some more important objectives before us are:
To eliminate illiteracy;
To develop self-esteem and self-confidence;
To have knowledge about their bodies and sexuality;
To have the ability to make their own decisions and negotiate;
To raise the women’s awareness of their civil rights;
To provide skills for income generation;
To make participation in community/society more effective; and
To prepare them to be good women leaders.
b) Research/Documentation :
The importance of doing participatory and action research was underscored. It was considered important to organize workshops to train grass-roots women to conduct participatory research where they could develop skills to critically analyze their existing conditions. This will facilitate their organizing for collective action.
Research as a strategy would therefore entitle:
É Disseminating information;
É Producing and disseminating information leaflets regarding women’s rights;
É Referring to women in all national and International statistics;
É Collecting oral history of women;
É Documenting and analyzing successful and failed progrmmes of the women’s movements;
É Collecting cross-cultural caste studies
É Constantly evaluating research; and
É .Involving women as agents (instead of objects) of research
c) Campaigns :
If one is to have an effect in society, it is important to undertake campaign and lobby activities that will put the issue of gender in the minds of the legislators, policy-makers and the large public. This will therefore mean:
Pushing for a dialogue between stake holders;
Raising gender issues within the national policy arena;
Pressuring to upgrade women’s bureaus into ministries of women’s affairs;
Lobbying for sex-equity and affirmative action legislation;
Lobbying for “counter structural adjustment policies”;
Organizing pressure groups (like “Greenpeace”);
Securing access to information;
Demanding child care centers; and
Producing video and CDs, T-Shirts etc.
d) Networking :
Through networking, it would be possible to share experiences and learn from one another. In this manner, understanding and solidarity among women’s organizations, development organizations (governmental/non-government) and multilateral agencies could be forged.
v Organizing at least one meeting year of gender sensitive organizations;
v Bringing together donor agencies, governments and NGOs;
v Setting up a south-south cooperation and exchange;
v Linking women’s movements all over the world;
v Establishing alternative credit schemes that offer women access to funds.
e) Training :
In our societies, there is a gender division of labour which dictates the kind of training one acquires. If one talks about women’s empowerment, it is important that women have access to the different training opportunities previously denied them. This therefore means:
Preparing for jobs that are usually not open to them; Providing income-generating projects that are market-oriented; and Training capable female leaders at all levels.
f) Media :
Now a days Media is playing vital and important role in the development of the society. Considering the attitudinal barriers in traditional societies and the role which the mass media play in reinforcing them, the following strategies were advanced:
v Organizing mass media campaigns to raise awareness;
v Creating a social climate friendly to women’s issues;
v Resisting the tendency to send women back to the kitchen; and
v Disseminating information about conferences that will take place in the coming years.
Finally, It was pointed out that one of the key determinants of successful programmes is the extent to which they had taken the multiple roles of women into account and how they helped in alleviating the burden.
These are the suggested components for Women Empowerment:
Promotion of gender awareness Lessons on health and nutrition; Integration of technical, entrepreneurial, cultural and communal aspects; Information and lessons on politics; and Provision of planning and thinking skills.
Literacy is a tool that can help women and men understand themselves, their communities and society at large. Literacy involves change because it offers possibilities of new ways of looking and doing things. Crucial to education work are other complementary activities such as those in the areas of legal reform, transformation of international economic and political relations, action-oriented research and networking. It was stressed that it is equally important to convince men that better education of women will be beneficial to the entire family and the society as a whole.
References :
Bown, Lalage (1990) Preparing the Future. Women, Literacy, and Development. Action Aid Development Report No.4, Sommerset: Action Aid.
Carmichael, Stokely, and Hamilton, Charles (1967) Black Power: The Politics of Liberation. New York: Random House.
Commonwealth Secretariat (1989) Engendering Adjustment for the 1990s. London Commonwealth Secretriat.
Evans, Sara (1979) Development Thought and Development Strategies, Riverside: University of California, mimeo.
Jack, Raymond(1992) Women and Attempted Suicide. Hove, U.K.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Lomintz, Larissa (1977) Networks of Marginality: Life in a Mexican Shantytown. New York: Academic Press.
Rao, Aruna, Feldstein, Hilary, Cloud, Kathleen, and Staudt, Kathleen (1991)Gender Training and Development Planning: Lerning from Experience. Conference Report. Bergan: The Chr. Michelsen Institute.
Stomquist, Nelly (1988) Women’s Education in Development: From Welfare to Empowerment, Convergence 21 (4): 5-17.
Stomquist, Nelly (1993b) Women’s Literacy and Empowerment in Latin America. In Carlos Torres (ed.), Edication in Latin America. Albert Park, Australia: James Nicholas Publishers.
UNESCO (1992) EFA 2000 No.9. Paris: UNESCO
UNICEF (1987) The Invisible Adjustment. Poor Women and the Economic Crisis Santiago: UNICEF Regional Office for the Americas and the Carribean.
USAID (1990b) The Democratic Initiative. Washington, D.C.: USAID, December.
About the Authors:
* N.V.S.Suryanarayana, M.Sc (Chem)., M.Sc (Geo)., M.A.(Tel.)., M.A (Eng)., M.A (Phil)., M.A (CC&E)., PGDCA., PGDEPM., PGDIPM., CFA., CPFN., CIG., C.Yoga&Con., M.Ed., M.Phil. (Ph.D). Teaching Associate, Department of Education, Andhra University Campus, Vizianagaram, (AP)., India,e-Mail – suryanarayananistala@yahoo.in. 094403 48609 ** Dr.T.J.M.S.Raju M.A (Psy.), PGDCA., C.Yoga&Con., M.Ed., Ph.D., Principal, KPN College of Education, Gantyada, Vizianagaram, District (AP) ***G. Himabindu, M.A(Pol.)., M.Li.Sc., M.A (Edn.)., B.Ed., M.Phil., (Ph.D). Teaching Associate, Department of Politics., Andhra University Campus, Vizianagaram. ****CH. Alekhya B.Sc., B.Ed., M.A (Eng.)., M.Ed., Scholar, Andhra university Campus, Vizianagaram, E.Mail- missionisias@yahoo.com.